Automated Driving Roles

This page provides a glossary of terms for human and entity roles in automated driving.

Semantic Map

You can also view an interactive semantic map of these roles.

Cross-Cutting Concepts

Driver

Driver is not a universal role. A framework may use the word for a human who performs the dynamic driving task, may legally attribute the role to a person, entity, or ADS that does not perform that task, or may combine performance and legal attribution. The 1949 and 1968 UN road-traffic conventions define a driver as a person who drives a vehicle or guides specified animals. Neither convention separately defines person, so it does not expressly resolve whether a legal person could qualify, although the operative provisions strongly presuppose a human. Article 34 bis of the 1968 Convention treats the driver requirement as satisfied during compliant ADS operation without declaring the ADS to be the driver. The UAOVA assigns the exclusive legal-driver role during automated operation to the automated driving provider (ADP), which may be an individual or legal entity, while the ADS performs the entire dynamic driving task. By contrast, the UN GTR on ADS defines Driver as an ADS user—and therefore a human—who performs part or all of that task. SAE J3016 distinguishes in-vehicle and remote drivers from fallback-ready users. China’s GB/T 40429-2021 distinguishes driver, conventional driver, and remote driver; GB 44721-2026 uses a narrower in-vehicle definition for its L3/L4 safety requirements. Germany retains Fahrzeugführer; France permits delegated driving subject to specified conditions; Sweden deems a person the driver in automated-vehicle trials; Finland proposes a driver-in-readiness; and Slovakia separately addresses a supervising person and an automated-delivery-vehicle driver. US FMVSS generally defines driver by reference to a human occupant, but NHTSA’s fact-specific 2016 Google interpretation treated the Self-Driving System as the driver for the described vehicle design. Each framework-specific use therefore remains a separate table entry.

Operator

Operator is even more variable. It may identify a human who drives or assists a vehicle, a person that causes an ADS to engage, an entity that runs a vehicle, fleet, or transport service, a licence or permit holder, or an ADS to which a statute attributes legal status. California and Nevada use operator in activation- or vehicle-operation contexts, while California separately regulates manufacturers and permit holders. The European Union and Croatia use on-board operator and remote-intervention operator for particular human functions. Switzerland uses operator for remote supervision of driverless operation. France distinguishes the STRA operator from the service organizer, system designer, and remote-intervention personnel. The UAOVA assigns the exclusive legal-operator role during automated operation to the same automated driving provider (ADP) that it treats as the exclusive driver; the ADS still performs the entire dynamic driving task. Florida and Texas instead attribute operator status to the engaged ADS for specified legal purposes. The table therefore uses each framework’s full definition rather than treating operator as one cross-framework role.

User

User is an umbrella term, not one distinct role. SAE J3016 treats driver, passenger, fallback-ready user, driverless operation dispatcher, and ADS assistant as mutually exclusive user-role categories at a given time. The UN ADS framework uses ADS user as a human-only umbrella covering occupant, driver, fallback user, and passenger. China’s GB/T 40429-2021 similarly uses User for driver, passenger, DDT fallback-ready user, and dispatcher. A person may move from one specific role to another during a trip. Those specific roles remain in the table; User itself does not.

Remote facilitator

Remote facilitator is an analytical umbrella term for a human who supports or affects vehicle operation from outside the vehicle. It includes distinct functions that should not be collapsed: a Remote Driver performs at least part of the dynamic driving task; a Remote Fallback-Ready User performs fallback; a Remote ADS Assistant or framework-specific Remote Assistant supplies information or advice while the ADS performs that task; a Remote Monitor observes and escalates; a Remote Intervention Operator supplies commands within a defined intervention function; and a dispatcher initiates or manages trips without necessarily driving, assisting, or supervising. Germany, France, the European Union, Finland, Slovakia, Switzerland, and several US jurisdictions draw these boundaries differently. Location alone therefore does not determine the role.

Safety driver and safety operator

Safety driver and safety operator are testing, pilot, or authorization roles rather than universal deployment roles. A safety driver normally occupies a driving position, monitors the vehicle and road, and can take over the dynamic driving task. A safety operator may monitor, intervene, or perform fallback from another position or remotely, depending on the instrument. Singapore’s rules distinguish a qualified safety driver from a safety operator. China uses 安全员 in national and local pilot instruments. California separately uses autonomous-vehicle test driver in DMV testing rules and safety driver in CPUC passenger-service programs. The table preserves those legal and functional distinctions rather than normalizing the labels.

Owner, keeper, and registered operator

Owner, keeper, and registered operator are distinct legal statuses: property rights, registration status, authority over vehicle use, and specified legal duties need not belong to the same person. Germany’s Halter keeps the vehicle for their own account and has actual authority over its use. Australia’s registered operator is a registration-law status. Croatia assigns specified duties to the owner of a fully automated vehicle. Texas assigns the owner specified consequences for traffic-law violations while deeming the engaged ADS the operator. Other frameworks instead place particular duties on permit holders, fleet operators, service operators, insurers, or persons in whose names vehicles are registered. These roles should be compared by their legal functions, not treated as translations.

Permit holder, participant, carrier, and responsible person

Permit holder, participant, carrier, and responsible person are authorization or accountability roles to which testing and deployment frameworks attach specific legal duties. The label alone does not show whether the holder drives, supervises, dispatches, operates a service, or merely answers for compliance. California DMV has separate testing-with-driver, driverless-testing, and deployment permit holders. The California Public Utilities Commission separately authorizes charter-party carriers and pilot or deployment participants to provide drivered or driverless AV passenger service. The UAOVA uses a declaration rather than a permit: a qualified person becomes an automated driving provider (ADP), designates associated automated vehicles, and assumes the exclusive driver and operator roles and specified rules-of-the-road duties during automated operation. Canada uses an ACMV-pilot participant; China (Hong Kong) uses pilot proprietor; Sweden uses trial permit holder; the United Kingdom uses ASDE, licensed NUiC-operator, APS-permit-holder, nominated-individual, and incident-inspector roles; and China’s national and local frameworks use manufacturer, use-subject, pilot-entity, and related roles. Finland’s proposed legislation and Slovakia’s enacted and proposed instruments add further provider, licence-holder, permit-holder, and supervising-person roles. The table identifies whether each role is enacted, proposed, limited to testing, or used in deployment.

Table of Framework-Specific Concepts

Roles in Automated Driving

Term / Role	Framework	Role Type	Brief Description	Primary Source(s) and URL(s)	Similar Terms (other frameworks)	Complementary Terms
ADS Assistant	SAE J3016	Human	A user who supplies event-driven information or advice to an ADS that is performing the dynamic driving task so the trip can continue. The assistant does not perform the dynamic driving task or fallback; assistance can include revised tactical goals, interpretation of human traffic control, and communication with first responders.	SAE J3016	Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016]
Approval Authority	UNECE 1958 Agreement	Entity	The competent authority that grants, refuses, extends, suspends, or withdraws type approval on behalf of a Contracting Party. It may act directly or through the national arrangements allowed by the type-approval system.	UNECE 1958 Agreement concerning the adoption of harmonized UN vehicle regulations and reciprocal recognition of approvals (binding treaty framework for Contracting Parties)	Competent Authority [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] First-Supply Regulator [Australia]	Technical Service
Assessor / Competent Personnel	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human	Personnel assigned to assess test environments, the safety case, post-deployment safety, and related compliance evidence. The UN ADS text distributes these functions across assessors and ‘competent personnel’ rather than defining one universal office.	ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139, ¶¶ 6.2, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.3.1, 6.4 (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Adopted UN assessment function) UN Regulation on ADS	Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) [France] Technical Service [UNECE 1958 Agreement]	Manufacturer
Authorised Automated Vehicle Incident Inspector	United Kingdom	Human	A person authorised to investigate incidents involving authorised automated vehicles. The inspector seeks to identify, understand, and reduce safety failings rather than determine civil or criminal blame, and is distinct from the in-use regulator's enforcement functions.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, §§ 60–77 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted investigatory role; commencement varies)	—	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) Licensed NUiC Operator
Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE)	United Kingdom	Entity	The authorised self-driving entity is the person identified in an authorisation as responsible for the way an authorised automated vehicle behaves when an authorised automation feature is engaged. The framework protects a user-in-charge from offences arising from the manner of driving while the feature is engaged, subject to statutory exceptions, and instead subjects the ASDE to information duties, civil sanctions, and variation, suspension, or withdrawal of authorisation.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, c. 10, §§ 1, 6, 8–9, 26–27, 34–37, 47–48 (UK) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted; full authorisation regime not yet commenced) Law Commissions of England and Wales and Scotland, Automated Vehicles: Joint Report (Jan. 2022) (official / technical material) CCAV/DfT, Automated Vehicles Act implementation and APS permitting materials (2025–26) (official / technical material)	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving Provider [Finland] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia] SAO Implementer [Japan] STRA Operator [France] Use Subject [China (national)]	Authorised Automated Vehicle Incident Inspector Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder Licensed NUiC Operator User-in-Charge (UiC)
Authorized Entity	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human/entity	A person or entity authorised to receive data from an ADS vehicle's Data Storage System for Automated Driving (DSSAD). The applicable national framework determines who is authorised and the conditions for access.	UN GTR on ADS ¶¶ 4.3.5, 5.1.8.5.4; Annex 6 ¶¶ 3.2, 4.1–4.2 n.2, 4.5.2, 4.6.1, 5.3.2 n.5 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Adopted UN text; identity left to national law) Parallel UN ADS Regulation (adopted June 2026; ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137; final number pending official publication) (UN Regulation under the 1958 Agreement; binding on Contracting Parties applying it)	—	Manufacturer
Authorized Official Directing Traffic	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human	An authorized official who directs traffic. Under the 1968 Convention, road users must obey the official's instructions, which take precedence over traffic regulations, signs, signals, and road markings; the official must be identifiable at a distance.	1968 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 6 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Road-Safety Agent [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Traffic Controller [Generic]	Cyclist Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Pedestrian Road User
Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant	Canada	Human/entity	A person or organisation authorised to operate an automated commercial motor vehicle in Ontario's pilot program. The pilot has its own eligibility, operating, reporting, driver or remote-oversight, and insurance requirements.	O. Reg. 161/25 (Pilot Project — Automated Commercial Motor Vehicles), Ontario (binding primary authority; status: Temporary pilot, 2025–2035) Ontario MTO, ACMV pilot program conditions and guidance (2025) (official / technical material)	Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Road-Application Pilot Entity [China (Beijing)] Test Subject [China (national)] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Organization [Canada] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Driver [Canada] Remote Assistant [Canada]
Automated Delivery-Vehicle Operation Permit Holder Slovak: držiteľ povolenia prevádzky automatizovaného doručovacieho vozidla	Slovakia	Human/entity	The vehicle operator that holds a permit to operate an automated delivery vehicle in road traffic. The holder must ensure safe and insured operation, mark the vehicle with identifying and contact information, and keep records identifying the supervising driver and the time of supervision.	Slovak Act No. 106/2018 on Operation of Vehicles in Road Traffic, § 52, and Road Traffic Act No. 8/2009, § 6(7), as amended by Act No. 429/2022 (binding primary authority; in force 2 Jan. 2023)	Commercial Authorization Holder [Texas] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)]	Driver of an Automated Delivery Vehicle
Automated Driving Provider	Finland	Entity	A proposed legal entity that would be licensed and responsible for an automated vehicle's behavior while the ADS performs the dynamic driving task. It would apply for each vehicle to be accepted and registered as self-driving in Finland.	Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications, Regulating the Deployment of Automated Vehicles in Finland, UNECE document ADS-12-51, slides 6-7 (official 2025 policy presentation; proposed role) Finnish Government, road-traffic automation regulation project LVM032:00/2021 (official legislative-project status; proposal still in preparation as of 27 Aug. 2026)	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia]	Driver-in-Readiness Remote Management Provider
Automated Driving Provider (ADP)	UAOVA (US model state law)	Human/entity	An automated driving provider is a person that declares to the state that it may be the driver of an associated automated vehicle during automated operation. The declaration is implemented through the registration system: an automated vehicle may be registered only if it is associated with a declared ADP.	UAOVA §§ 2, 5–7 (Unif. Law Comm’n 2019) (model legislation; no legal effect in any state unless and until enacted there) UAOVA prefatory note and legislative notes (official / technical material) Smith, Drafting Memoranda for the UAOVA (SSRN abstract 3747058, 2019) (secondary / analytical source)	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider [Finland] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia] Driver [UAOVA (US model state law)] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas] Operator [Nevada] Operator [UAOVA (US model state law)] SAO Implementer [Japan] STRA Operator [France] Use Subject [China (national)]	—
Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE)	Australia	Entity	A corporation that would be certified as responsible for the safe operation of an ADS throughout its on-road design life under Australia's proposed in-service law. The proposed role includes responsibility for the dynamic driving task, a general safety duty, data and reporting obligations, and executive-officer due diligence.	Road Vehicle Standards Act 2018 (Cth) (binding primary authority; current first-supply framework) NTC, The Regulatory Framework for Automated Vehicles in Australia (Feb. 2022) (official policy) NTC, Automated Driving System Entity Certification; ADSE In-Service Obligations; Regulator Powers and Functions (Apr. 2024) (official policy) Department of Infrastructure, AVSL Consultation Paper (22 Apr. 2024) (official policy) — Australian automated-vehicle policy NTC, Automated Vehicle Safety Reforms: Consultation Report (Dec. 2025) (official policy; proposed AVSL role not enacted as of 24 Aug. 2026)	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving Provider [Finland] SAO Implementer [Japan] STRA Operator [France] Use Subject [China (national)]	Executive Officer First-Supply Regulator Registered Operator
Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder	United Kingdom	Human/entity	A person or body granted a permit to provide automated passenger services under the United Kingdom's pilot scheme. The permit can modify specified taxi, private-hire, or bus requirements and does not by itself make its holder an ASDE or licensed NUiC operator.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, Part 5, especially §§ 82–89; Automated Vehicles (Permits for Automated Passenger Services) Regulations 2026 (SI 2026/439) (binding primary authority; status: Part 5 of the 2024 Act commenced early, in force 15 May 2026, ahead of the wider authorisation regime) DfT/DVSA, Self-driving vehicle pilot scheme: information for applicants (2026) (official / technical material)	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Commercial Authorization Holder [Texas] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) Licensed NUiC Operator
Automobile Manufacturer (Pilot Consortium)	China (national)	Entity	The vehicle-manufacturer member of a national ICV pilot consortium. It applies jointly with the Use Subject and must establish product safety assurance, safety monitoring, risk and emergency-management, cybersecurity, data-security, and response capabilities for the selected ICV products throughout the pilot stages.	Four-ministry Notice on ICV Access and On-Road Pilot Work and annexed Implementation Guide (Trial), 17 Nov. 2023 (official national pilot instrument) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California] Vehicle Manufacturer [China (national)]	Use Subject
Autonomous Vehicle Driver Korean: 자율주행자동차 운전자	South Korea	Human (only in-vehicle)	The human driver of an autonomous vehicle. When a driver-supervised automated system requests takeover or direct driving is otherwise required, the driver must respond promptly and operate the steering, braking, and other controls; the cited safety-education requirement applies specifically to drivers of vehicles operating under temporary-operation test permits.	도로교통법 (Road Traffic Act, Republic of Korea), ch. 4-2, arts. 56-2 and 56-3 (inserted 19 Mar. 2024; in force 20 Sept. 2024; art. 56-3 education from 20 Mar. 2025), current consolidated text (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) 도로교통법 시행규칙 art. 38-2 (autonomous-vehicle safety education) — not to be confused with 시행령 art. 38-2 (emergency-vehicle education) (binding primary authority) Korea Road Traffic Authority, 자율주행자동차 안전교육 guidance (official / technical material) — South Korean Road Traffic Act	Driver [Canada] Driver [France] Driver [Switzerland] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	—
Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver	California	Human (only in-vehicle)	The human driver designated for a California testing operation when the applicable permit requires a driver. The person must meet the licensing, training, monitoring, and takeover requirements in the DMV regulations and the permit holder’s program.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750; 13 CCR art. 3.7 (binding primary authority; status: Regulatory testing role) — California Vehicle Code; California autonomous-vehicle regulations California DMV testing-permit materials (official / technical material) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations	Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Driver [Canada] Safety Driver [California] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [China (Beijing)] Safety Operator [China (national)] Safety Operator [China (Shenzhen)] Safety Operator [Singapore] Safety Supervisor [China (national)] Test Driver [China (national)]	Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present
Backup Operator Chinese: 後備操作員	China (Hong Kong)	Human	A person who may be required or named by a condition of a Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle pilot licence or AV certificate and who meets the qualifications specified in that condition. The regulatory records distinguish whether the AV system was overridden by a backup operator.	Road Traffic (Autonomous Vehicles) Regulation (Cap. 374AA), including §§ 2, 4(1), 13, 19(1), (2), (6), 20(3)(b), 34 (Hong Kong); in operation since 1 Mar. 2024 (binding primary authority; status: Statutory/permit-condition role) Transport Dept. pilot licence conditions PL24001(5) (remote backup operators, 1:1) and TD announcement of 23 July 2026 (driverless testing, Airport Island) (official / technical material) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle trial framework; Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle legislation Transport Department, Code of Practice for Trial and Pilot Use of Autonomous Vehicles (official / technical material) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle trial framework Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [China (Beijing)] Safety Operator [China (national)] Safety Operator [China (Shenzhen)] Safety Operator [Singapore]	Pilot Proprietor
Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP)	California	Human/entity	A person or organization that transports passengers by motor vehicle for compensation under California's Passenger Charter-Party Carriers' Act. In the CPUC autonomous-vehicle programs, the TCP holds Commission authority for AV passenger service and must also hold the corresponding California DMV testing or deployment authorization.	Cal. Pub. Util. Code §§ 5360, 5371 (binding primary authority; general carrier role) CPUC General Order 157-E, pts. 2.02, 8.01-8.02 (binding CPUC rules) CPUC Decision 18-05-043 (binding CPUC decision establishing the pilot programs) CPUC Decision 20-11-046, as modified by Decision 21-05-017 (binding CPUC decision establishing the deployment programs)	Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California] Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom] STRA Operator [France] Transport Service Operator [European Union]	Remote Operator Safety Driver [California]
Commercial Authorization Holder	Texas	Human/entity	The person authorized by the Texas Department of Motor Vehicles to operate automated motor vehicles without a human driver for commercial transport of property or passengers. The 2025 law directs the Board to prescribe applications, statements, vehicle information, safety and contact materials, and enforcement by rule; compliance timing depends on the implementing rules.	Tex. Transp. Code § 545.456, added by S.B. 2807 (2025) (binding primary authority; implementation-dependent) — Texas Transportation Code	Automated Delivery-Vehicle Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)]	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas] Owner
Company	Canada	Entity	A company includes a person manufacturing vehicles or equipment in Canada, a person selling for resale vehicles or equipment obtained directly from such a manufacturer or its agent, and a person importing a vehicle or equipment for sale. ADS-related defect, testing, exemption, and corrective-action duties attach through this existing federal role rather than a dedicated ADS operator licence.	Motor Vehicle Safety Act, § 2 and related compliance provisions (binding primary authority) — Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Act	Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California] Vehicle Manufacturer [China (national)]	—
Competent Authority	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Entity	The public authority assigned specified registration, vehicle-weight, driving-permit, or permit-withdrawal functions under the conventions. Under the 1949 Convention, a competent authority may empower an association to issue specified registration certificates or driving permits; the authority remains distinct from the road users subject to those instruments.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 18–19 and 24 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 1(w) and 42 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Approval Authority [UNECE 1958 Agreement] First-Supply Regulator [Australia] In-Use Regulator [Generic] Relevant Authority [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	Driving-Permit Holder Person in Whose Name a Vehicle Is Registered
Conventional Driver Chinese: 传统驾驶员	China (national)	Human (only in-vehicle)	A driver seated at the driving position who manually and directly operates the vehicle's braking, acceleration, steering, gear-selection, and related physical inputs.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.1.1 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Driver [China (national)] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] In-Vehicle Driver [SAE J3016]	—
Cyclist	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human	A person who rides a cycle. Under both conventions, a cyclist is also a driver because each driver definition includes a person who drives a cycle; separate provisions prescribe conduct specific to cyclists.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 4 and 16 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 1(v) and 27 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Other Road User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Vulnerable Road User [Generic]	Authorized Official Directing Traffic Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)]
DDT Fallback-Ready User Chinese: 动态驾驶任务后援用户	China (national)	Human	A user of an active Level 3 driving-automation system who can recognize an intervention request or an evident dynamic-driving-task-related vehicle failure and perform fallback. The role may be inside or outside the vehicle and becomes a driver while performing part or all of the dynamic driving task.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.3 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Fallback User [China (national)] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016]	Driver [China (national)]
Deployment Permit Holder	California	Entity	An eligible manufacturer holding a California permit to deploy autonomous vehicles for public operation rather than merely test them. Deployment duties are distinct from testing duties; the holder must comply with the applicable safety case, reporting, financial-responsibility, operational, first-responder, and permit conditions.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750; 13 CCR art. 3.8, as revised effective 28 Apr. 2026 (binding primary authority; status: Regulatory permit) — California Vehicle Code; California autonomous-vehicle regulations California DMV 2026 autonomous-vehicle regulatory materials (official / technical material) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Automated Delivery-Vehicle Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Commercial Authorization Holder [Texas] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology Operator [California] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Driver [California]
Dispatcher Chinese: 调度员	China (national)	Human	A user who activates an ADS to dispatch a vehicle operating without a driver but does not perform the dynamic driving task. The role applies to Level 4 or Level 5 operation covering the entire trip; if the ADS has not planned a route, the dispatcher also specifies the destination.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.4 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016] Driverless Operation Dispatcher [Utah]	—
Dispatching Entity	SAE J3016	Entity	An entity that places one or more ADS-equipped vehicles into driverless service by engaging the ADS. Its dispatch functions may be divided among agents according to the vehicle-use specification; the entity does not itself perform the dynamic driving task.	SAE J3016	—	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016]
Driver	Canada	Human (only in-vehicle)	The human in the driver's seat for the driver-supervised stream of Ontario's Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle pilot. The driver must be properly qualified and prepared to take over the dynamic driving task as required by the approved testing approach and program conditions.	O. Reg. 161/25 and Ontario ACMV Pilot Program Conditions (binding regulation plus official program conditions)	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Driver [France] Fahrzeugführer [Germany]	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant Trial Organization
Driver Chinese: 驾驶员	China (national)	Human	A human user who performs part or all of the dynamic driving task in real time. GB/T 40429-2021 also includes a user who takes over in real time and allows the role to be conventional or remote.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.1 (current recommended national standard) GB 44721-2026, § 3.15 (published mandatory national standard; effective 1 July 2027) MIIT consultation text for GB 44721-2026, § 3.15 (official pre-publication primary text) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Conventional Driver [China (national)] Driver [SAE J3016] In-Vehicle Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [China (national)]	DDT Fallback-Ready User Fallback User [China (national)]
Driver	France	Human (only in-vehicle)	The human who drives a vehicle capable of delegated driving. While the automated driving system performs the dynamic driving task within its conditions of use, French law relieves the driver of specified responsibility for system-performed manoeuvres, subject to takeover obligations and exceptions for emergency or authority directions.	Ordonnance no. 2021-443; Code de la route arts. L. 123-1 and L. 123-2 (binding primary authority) French delegated-driving ordinance	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] Driver [Canada] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	—
Driver	SAE J3016	Human	A user who performs in real time part or all of the dynamic driving task and/or DDT fallback for a particular vehicle. The technical role can be performed in the vehicle or remotely; it is distinct from a dispatcher or remote assistant performing only strategic or advisory functions.	SAE J3016	Driver [China (national)] Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] Remote Human Operator [Florida]	Fallback-Ready User (FRU)
Driver	Switzerland	Human (only in-vehicle)	A human driver who may activate an approved motorway-pilot system and need not continuously monitor the road or vehicle while it is active. The driver must remain ready to resume the dynamic driving task when requested and is distinct from the operator who supervises a driverless vehicle.	Swiss Road Traffic Act arts. 25a-25g and Ordinance on Automated Driving (OCAut/VAF) (binding primary authority; in force 1 Mar. 2025) — Swiss automated-driving ordinance	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	—
Driver	UAOVA (US model state law)	Human/entity	The individual or legal entity that is the exclusive legal driver of an associated automated vehicle during automated operation. The adopting state's otherwise-applicable vehicle-code meaning of driver remains in place, but this role is assigned to the automated driving provider. The ADS, rather than that provider, performs the entire dynamic driving task; the legal designation does not mean that the provider directly performs lateral or longitudinal vehicle-motion control.	UAOVA § 2(8)–(9) and § 4 (Unif. Law Comm’n 2019) (model legislation; no legal effect in any state unless enacted)	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Operator [UAOVA (US model state law)]	—
Driver	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human	An ADS user who performs in real time part or all of the dynamic driving task for a particular ADS vehicle. Because an ADS user is defined as human, this driver is necessarily human; the definition does not treat the ADS itself as the driver.	UN ADS GTR paras. 2.14 and 2.14.2 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) and parallel UN ADS Regulation (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137) (official UN technical instruments)	Driver [SAE J3016] Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] Human Driver [Texas]	Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Passenger [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]
Driver	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human/entity	Both the 1949 and 1968 Conventions expressly define a driver as any person who drives a vehicle or guides specified animals on a road. Neither convention separately defines person or expressly resolves whether it can include a legal person or an ADS. Their references to animal guidance, physical control, permits, and conduct strongly presuppose a human, while the 1968 Convention's automated-driving provision treats the driver requirement as satisfied during compliant ADS operation without declaring the ADS to be the driver.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 4; 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 1(v) and art. 34bis (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) — 1968 Convention amendment on automated driving Smith, Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States, 1 Tex. A&M L. Rev. 411, 463–74 (2014) (secondary analysis)	Driver [SAE J3016] Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	Authorized Official Directing Traffic Cyclist Driving-Permit Holder
Driver	US (national)	Human (only in-vehicle)	Driver means the occupant of a motor vehicle seated immediately behind the steering control system. This occupant-based definition can produce a vacancy in vehicles without conventional controls.	49 C.F.R. § 571.3 (binding primary authority; current federal definition) — US FMVSS driver definition NHTSA, Occupant Protection for Vehicles With Automated Driving Systems, 87 Fed. Reg. 18560 (30 Mar. 2022) (binding final rule retaining a human-occupant definition in the relevant context)	Human Driver [Texas] In-Vehicle Driver [SAE J3016]	Driver [US (national); ADS]
Driver	US (national)	ADS	An automated driving system treated as the driver in NHTSA's interpretation of Google's described vehicle design, which had no human driving controls and was controlled exclusively by its Self-Driving System. The interpretation was confined to those facts and did not amend the general FMVSS definition of driver.	NHTSA Letter to Google, 4 Feb. 2016 (official interpretation confined to the described design) — NHTSA Google interpretation	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas]	Driver [US (national); Human]
Driver of an Automated Delivery Vehicle Slovak: vodič automatizovaného doručovacieho vozidla	Slovakia	Human (only remote)	A human at least 18 years old whom Slovak law classifies as the driver of an automated delivery vehicle. The driver performs the legally required supervision and may take over the actual driving remotely; the permit holder must record the driver's identity and supervision times.	Slovak Road Traffic Act No. 8/2009, §§ 5(6), 6(7), and 55b, as amended by Act No. 429/2022 (binding primary authority; in force 2 Jan. 2023)	Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle [Slovakia] Remote Driver [SAE J3016]	Automated Delivery-Vehicle Operation Permit Holder
Driver-in-Readiness	Finland	Human (only in-vehicle)	A proposed in-vehicle role occupied by a driver while the ADS performs the dynamic driving task. The person would not be responsible for the vehicle's traffic behavior during that ADS operation but could have other defined duties and must be able to act as the driver when necessary.	Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications, Regulating the Deployment of Automated Vehicles in Finland, UNECE document ADS-12-51, slide 6 (official 2025 policy presentation; proposed role) Finnish Government, road-traffic automation regulation project LVM032:00/2021 (official legislative-project status; proposal still in preparation as of 27 Aug. 2026)	Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle [Slovakia] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	Automated Driving Provider
Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant	California	Human/entity	A Class P or Class A TCP permit-holder authorized by the CPUC to provide fare-charging passenger service in autonomous vehicles with a safety driver in the vehicle. The participant must also hold a California DMV deployment permit and comply with the applicable carrier, driver, insurance, inspection, operational, reporting, and passenger-protection requirements.	CPUC Decision 20-11-046, as modified by Decision 21-05-017, ordering paras. 1, 3-6 (binding CPUC decision; drivered Phase I deployment program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California]	Deployment Permit Holder Safety Driver [California]
Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant	California	Human/entity	A TCP permit-holder authorized by the CPUC to provide prearranged passenger service in test autonomous vehicles with a safety driver in the vehicle. The participant must hold the corresponding California DMV testing permit, may not charge passengers, and must satisfy the carrier, reporting, passenger-notice, consent, insurance, inspection, and driver requirements imposed by the pilot authorization.	CPUC Decision 18-05-043, ordering paras. 1-7 (binding CPUC decision; drivered pilot program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California]	Safety Driver [California] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present
Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant	California	Human/entity	A Class P or Class A TCP permit-holder authorized by the CPUC to provide fare-charging passenger service in autonomous vehicles without a driver in the vehicle. The participant must also hold a California DMV deployment permit and comply with Passenger Safety Plan, remote-operator, insurance, inspection, operational, reporting, and passenger-protection requirements.	CPUC Decision 20-11-046, as modified by Decision 21-05-017, ordering paras. 2-4 and 7 (binding CPUC decision; driverless Phase I deployment program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California]	Deployment Permit Holder Remote Operator
Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant	California	Human/entity	A TCP permit-holder authorized by the CPUC to provide prearranged passenger service in test autonomous vehicles without a driver in the vehicle. The participant must hold the corresponding California DMV driverless-testing permit, may not charge passengers, must maintain communication between passengers and remote operators, and must satisfy the Passenger Safety Plan and reporting requirements.	CPUC Decision 18-05-043, ordering paras. 8-17 (binding CPUC decision; driverless pilot program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California] Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant [California] Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant [California]	Driverless Testing Permit Holder Remote Operator
Driverless Operation Dispatcher	SAE J3016	Human	A user who dispatches one or more ADS-equipped vehicles in driverless operation. Dispatch is a strategic service function rather than performance of the dynamic driving task, although the same person may also perform other fleet-operation functions.	SAE J3016	Dispatcher [China (national)] Driverless Operation Dispatcher [Utah]	ADS Assistant Dispatching Entity Remote ADS Assistant Remote Assistant [SAE J3016]
Driverless Operation Dispatcher	Utah	Human	A user who dispatches an ADS-equipped vehicle in driverless operation. Utah codifies the role and the associated dispatch function, including software-enabled dispatch of multiple vehicles and trips; dispatch remains a strategic function rather than performance of the DDT.	Utah Code §§ 41-26-102.1 and 41-26-103 (binding primary authority; effective numbering as of 6 May 2026) — Utah automated-vehicle law	Dispatcher [China (national)] Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016]	Remote Driver [Utah]
Driverless Testing Permit Holder	California	Entity	An eligible entity holding a California permit to test autonomous vehicles without a driver in the vehicle. The permit imposes category-specific financial-responsibility, operational, reporting, remote-communication, law-enforcement, and first-responder requirements.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750; 13 CCR art. 3.7, as revised effective 28 Apr. 2026 (binding primary authority; status: Regulatory permit) — California Vehicle Code; California autonomous-vehicle regulations California DMV 2026 autonomous-vehicle regulatory materials (official / technical material) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Test-Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology Operator [California] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Driver [California]
Driving-Permit Holder	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human	A person who holds a driving permit recognized under the applicable convention. Holding the permit is an authorization status distinct from actually acting as a driver, and the 1968 Convention permits withdrawal of the right to use it in specified circumstances.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 24 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 41–42 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	—	Competent Authority Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)]
Encadrant d'intervention à distance	France	Human (only remote)	Personnel exercising supervisory or managerial responsibility over remote-intervention operations under the French STRA implementing framework. The role is distinct from the opérateur d’intervention à distance who performs the authorized intervention and should be identified separately in staffing, competence, and operating arrangements.	Arrêté du 2 août 2022 portant application de l'article R. 3152-3 du code des transports relatif à l'habilitation des intervenants à distance (binding primary authority; in force) — French remote-intervention order	—	Opérateur d'intervention à distance STRA Operator
Executive Officer	Australia	Human	An executive officer of an Automated Driving System Entity would have a personal due-diligence duty to ensure that the ADSE complies with its safety duties. The role remains proposed, not enacted.	Australian Government / NTC automated-vehicle safety reform materials (official policy; proposed AVSL role not enacted as of 24 Aug. 2026) Australian ADSE obligations	Nominated Individual [United Kingdom] Responsible Person for Permit Compliance [Sweden] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity [Croatia] Senior Manager [United Kingdom]	Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE)
Fahrzeugführer English: vehicle driver	Germany	Human (only in-vehicle)	The Fahrzeugführer is the natural person driving the vehicle.	StVG §§ 1a–1b, 1d–1g; StVFernLV (Germany) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force)	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] Conventional Driver [China (national)] Driver [Canada] Driver [France] Driver [SAE J3016] Driver [Switzerland] Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] In-Vehicle Driver [SAE J3016]	Halter Technische Aufsicht
Fallback User Chinese: 后援用户	China (national)	Human (only in-vehicle)	The in-vehicle user designated to take over. This GB 44721-2026 role is narrower in stated location than the DDT Fallback-Ready User in GB/T 40429-2021.	GB 44721-2026, § 3.16 (published mandatory national standard; effective 1 July 2027) MIIT consultation text for GB 44721-2026, § 3.16 (official pre-publication primary text) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	DDT Fallback-Ready User [China (national)] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016]	Driver [China (national)]
Fallback User	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human (only in-vehicle)	An ADS user located inside the vehicle who is designated to perform dynamic-driving-task fallback after an ADS fallback response. The person must be correctly seated, able to take over the dynamic driving task, and in contact with the steering control before deactivation completes.	UN GTR on ADS ¶¶ 2.6.1–2.6.2, 2.14.1, 2.14.3, 2.15, 2.16, 2.20, 4.1.6.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.2.1.6, 4.2.2.2.5, 4.2.2.3.8.1, 4.3.7 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Adopted UN text; final editorial numbering check) Parallel UN ADS Regulation (adopted June 2026; ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137; final number pending official publication) (UN Regulation under the 1958 Agreement; binding on Contracting Parties applying it)	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] DDT Fallback-Ready User [China (national)] Driver [Switzerland] Driver-in-Readiness [Finland] Fallback User [China (national)] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle [Slovakia] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]
Fallback-Ready User (FRU)	SAE J3016	Human	A user of a vehicle with an engaged Level 3 ADS feature who is qualified and able to operate the vehicle and remains receptive to ADS alerts and evident failures that require the user to perform fallback.	SAE J3016	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] DDT Fallback-Ready User [China (national)] Driver [Switzerland] Fallback User [China (national)] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	Driver [SAE J3016]
Fernlenkende Person English: remotely driving person	Germany	Human (only remote)	A natural person who remotely controls a motor vehicle in Germany's temporary remote-driving framework. While remote control is active, the person is treated as the Fahrzeugführer and must meet licensing, suitability, workplace, communications, and operational requirements.	StVFernLV, especially §§ 2–7, 19–20 (Germany) (binding primary authority; status: Temporary German trial framework, 1 Dec. 2025–30 Nov. 2030)	Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [China (national)] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [Utah] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Human Operator [Florida]	Halter
First Responder	Generic	Human	A human emergency responder. While traveling on the road to or from an incident, the responder and any emergency vehicle are road users whose movement and applicable priority rules the ADS must recognize. At a crash or incident scene, the responder may be working in or beside the roadway, directing traffic, assisting people, or managing hazards, and may also qualify as an Other Road User, Traffic Controller, Road-Safety Agent, or Vulnerable Road User.	Generic emergency-response role; the UN ADS instruments provide official framework-specific road-user and road-safety-agent comparisons. — UN GTR on ADS	Road-Safety Agent [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	Second Responder Traffic Controller Vulnerable Road User
First-Supply Regulator	Australia	Entity	The Commonwealth regulator responsible for vehicle and equipment compliance when first supplied to the Australian market. It is distinct from the proposed in-service regulator that would oversee an Automated Driving System Entity after deployment.	Road Vehicle Standards Act 2018 (Cth) (binding primary authority; status: Existing federal vehicle-supply function; proposed ADSE interface) NTC, proposed regulator powers and functions (Apr. 2024) (official / technical material)	Approval Authority [UNECE 1958 Agreement] Competent Authority [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] In-Use Regulator [Generic]	Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE)
Fleet Operator	Generic	Entity	A generic term for an entity that deploys and manages a fleet of ADS-equipped vehicles. A framework may instead assign this work to an ADP, ASDE, licensed NUiC operator, Halter, SAO implementer, STRA operator, or use subject.	Generic cross-framework organizational role; UAOVA provides an illustrative allocation of fleet-related duties to an Automated Driving Provider.	Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom] Organisateur du service [France] Transport Service Operator [European Union]	Remote Monitor Second Responder
Halter English: vehicle keeper	Germany	Human/entity	The Halter is the person or entity that keeps the vehicle for its own account and exercises the relevant power of disposition; the keeper may differ from the legal owner.	StVG §§ 1f(1), 1g, 7, 12 (Germany) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) Gesetz zum autonomen Fahren, 12 July 2021, BGBl. I S. 3108 (binding primary authority) — German Road Traffic Act AFGBV §§ 12–14 (current consolidated text) (binding primary authority)	Owner [Texas] Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle [Croatia] Person in Whose Name a Vehicle Is Registered [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Registered Operator [Australia]	Fahrzeugführer Fernlenkende Person Hersteller Technische Aufsicht
Hersteller English: manufacturer	Germany	Human/entity	The natural or legal person responsible to the approval authority for type approval and for ensuring conformity of production. Depending on the applicable German or EU instrument, the role may also carry operating-permit, safety, documentation, and market-correction duties.	StVG §§ 1e, 1f(3), 1g(3), 1j; AFGBV (Germany) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) Regulation (EU) 2018/858; Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1426 (EU type approval) (binding primary authority) KBA, national operating-permit guidance (official / technical material)	Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California] System Designer [France] Vehicle Manufacturer [China (national)]	Halter Technische Aufsicht
Human Driver	Texas	Human (only in-vehicle)	A natural person in an automated motor vehicle who controls all or part of the dynamic driving task. This current term replaced the former statutory label "human operator" effective 1 Sept. 2025.	Tex. Transp. Code § 545.451(7) (binding primary authority) — Texas Transportation Code	Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Driver [US (national); Human] In-Vehicle Driver [SAE J3016]	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas]
In-Use Regulator	Generic	Entity	A generic term for a public authority that monitors and enforces safety obligations after automated vehicles enter service. Different frameworks distribute these functions among one or more authorities rather than using a single office with this name.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, §§ 14–23, 28–40, 60–77 (UK) (binding primary authority; status: Analytical cross-jurisdictional function) 49 U.S.C. ch. 301 (United States) (binding primary authority) NTC, Regulator Powers and Functions (Apr. 2024) (official / technical material) NHTSA, AV STEP NPRM (15 Jan. 2025) and withdrawal (26 June 2026) (official / technical material)	Competent Authority [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] First-Supply Regulator [Australia] Relevant Authority [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	—
In-Vehicle ADS Assistant	SAE J3016	Human (only in-vehicle)	A user who provides event-driven information or advice to an ADS while located in the vehicle. The ADS continues to perform the dynamic driving task and fallback; a customer-service attendant responding to an ADS request is one example.	SAE J3016	On-Board Operator [Croatia] On-Board Operator [European Union]	—
In-Vehicle Driver	SAE J3016	Human (only in-vehicle)	A driver who manually exercises in-vehicle braking, accelerating, steering, and transmission gear selection input devices in order to operate a vehicle; seated in the driver's seat, the unique seating position making those input devices accessible. "Conventional driver" is an acceptable synonym.	SAE J3016	Conventional Driver [China (national)] Driver [China (national)] Driver [US (national); Human] Fahrzeugführer [Germany] Human Driver [Texas]	In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User
In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User	SAE J3016	Human (only in-vehicle)	A fallback-ready user seated in the driver’s seat of a conventional vehicle while a Level 3 ADS feature is engaged. After an alert to perform the dynamic driving task, the user can become the in-vehicle driver and perform fallback.	SAE J3016	DDT Fallback-Ready User [China (national)] Driver-in-Readiness [Finland] Fallback User [China (national)] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	In-Vehicle Driver
Insurer	United Kingdom	Entity	The insurer is directly liable to an injured person where a crash is caused by a listed vehicle when driving itself on a road or other public place in Great Britain and the vehicle is insured at the time. This is a single-insurer victim-compensation role, not a general definition of insurers in other frameworks.	Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 (UK), Part 1, §§ 1-6 (binding primary authority; extends to Great Britain)	—	—
Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator Slovak: držiteľ licencie prevádzkovateľa plne automatizovaného vozidla	Slovakia	Human/entity	A proposed licence holder that would be responsible for operating fully automated vehicles within approved conditions. It would have to provide a control center and continuous technical supervision, ensure that a supervision operator can act promptly, maintain insurance and records, and keep the vehicle within its operational design domain or reach a minimal risk condition.	Slovak Parliament, Government Bill 1329, proposed Act No. 106/2018 §§ 49a-49f (official proposed text; not enacted as of 27 Aug. 2026) Slovak Parliament, bill 1329 legislative-status page (official status: introduced 7 May 2026 and passed first reading 3 June 2026)	Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom] Remote Management Provider [Finland] STRA Operator [France]	Road-Transport Operator Supervision Operator
Licensed NUiC Operator	United Kingdom	Human/entity	The licensed entity with general responsibility for detecting and responding to problems during journeys made by vehicles with no user in charge. It must remain capable, financially sound, and operationally ready to oversee those journeys; it is distinct from the ASDE responsible for how the vehicle drives.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, c. 10, §§ 12–13, 53 (UK) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted; licensing regulations not yet fully commenced) Law Comm'ns Joint Report, Law Com. No. 404, ch. 7 (Jan. 2022) (official / technical material) CCAV, APS Permitting Scheme Consultation (2025–26) (official / technical material)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Fleet Operator [Generic] Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator [Slovakia] Organisateur du service [France] Remote Management Provider [Finland] Transport Service Operator [European Union]	Authorised Automated Vehicle Incident Inspector Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder Nominated Individual Senior Manager
Manufacturer	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human/entity	The manufacturer is the principal technical addressee of the adopted UN ADS instruments. It must establish and document a lifecycle Safety Management System, build and independently review a safety case, validate the ADS through a multi-pillar approach, conduct in-service monitoring and reporting, take remedial action, and supply required information and data.	UN ADS GTR paras. 2.31, 5.1-5.4, 6.1 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) and parallel UN ADS Regulation (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137) (adopted 24 June 2026; implementation status differs under the 1998 and 1958 Agreements)	Automobile Manufacturer (Pilot Consortium) [China (national)] Company [Canada] Hersteller [Germany] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California] System Designer [France] Vehicle Manufacturer [China (national)]	Assessor / Competent Personnel Authorized Entity Relevant Authority Safety Management System Auditor Safety-Case Reviewer
Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology	California	Human/entity	The person that originally manufactures and equips a vehicle with autonomous technology, or modifies a completed vehicle by installing autonomous technology. Eligibility and duties under the DMV permit system depend on the specific testing or deployment pathway.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750(a)(5); 13 CCR arts. 3.7-3.8 (binding primary authority) — California Vehicle Code; California autonomous-vehicle regulations	Automobile Manufacturer (Pilot Consortium) [China (national)] Company [Canada] Hersteller [Germany] Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] System Designer [France] Vehicle Manufacturer [China (national)]	Deployment Permit Holder Driverless Testing Permit Holder Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present
Nominated Individual	United Kingdom	Human	A named individual whom a regulated body may nominate to maintain oversight of its licensed no-user-in-charge operations and serve as a senior point of accountability. Nomination is permitted but not mandatory, and the role is distinct from the body’s senior manager.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, §§ 15, 26 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted; depends on imposed nomination requirement)	Executive Officer [Australia] Responsible Person for Permit Compliance [Sweden] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity [Croatia] Specified Person [Singapore]	Licensed NUiC Operator Senior Manager
Occupant Chinese: 车内用户	China (national)	Human (only in-vehicle)	A user located inside a vehicle equipped with an ADS. Driver, Fallback User, and Passenger are the more specific in-vehicle roles distinguished by GB 44721-2026.	GB 44721-2026, § 3.14 (published mandatory national standard; effective 1 July 2027) MIIT consultation text for GB 44721-2026, § 3.14 (official pre-publication primary text) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Occupant [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Passenger [China (national)] Passenger [SAE J3016] Passenger [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	—
Occupant	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human (only in-vehicle)	An occupant is an ADS user located in the ADS vehicle. This matters because a fallback user must be an occupant; the UN framework therefore does not create a remote fallback user.	UN ADS GTR paras. 2.14.1 and 2.14.3 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) and parallel UN ADS Regulation (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137)	Occupant [China (national)]	—
On-Board Operator Croatian: operator u vozilu	Croatia	Human (only in-vehicle)	A person inside a fully automated vehicle who may activate, reinitialize, or deactivate the ADS; order a minimal-risk maneuver; confirm an ADS-proposed maneuver while stopped; order a safe low-speed maneuver after a minimal-risk stop; change route or stop planning; or assist passengers in defined emergencies. The person does not drive the vehicle while performing these functions, and the ADS continues the dynamic driving task.	Croatian Road Safety Act definition 112 and art. 281.c, as amended by NN 145/2024 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force from Dec. 2024)	In-Vehicle ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] On-Board Operator [European Union]	Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle
On-Board Operator	European Union	Human (only in-vehicle)	A person inside a fully automated vehicle who may activate, re-initialise, or deactivate the ADS; request or confirm specified minimal-risk or low-speed manoeuvres; adjust itinerary or stopping points; and assist passengers. The person does not perform the dynamic driving task.	Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1426, consolidated 24 Mar. 2026, art. 2 and relevant annexes (binding primary authority; status: EU type-approval role; consolidated 24 Mar. 2026) Croatian Road Safety Act, as amended by NN 145/2024 (parallel national role) (binding primary authority)	In-Vehicle ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] On-Board Operator [Croatia]	Transport Service Operator
On-Site Response Operator Japanese: 現場措置業務実施者	Japan	Human	A person designated to reach a crash or incident scene during specified automated operation and take the measures needed to prevent danger on the road. The role supplies the operation's own physical response when the chief supervisor is monitoring remotely rather than riding in the vehicle.	道路交通法 (Road Traffic Act, Japan) arts. 75-12(1) (permit), 75-19(1), (3), 75-21, as amended by Act No. 32 of 2022 (in force 1 Apr. 2023) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) — Japanese Road Traffic Act National Police Agency, 特定自動運行に係る許可制度の創設について (June 2022) (official / technical material) — Japanese Level 4 automated-operation guidance	Second Responder [Generic]	SAO Chief Supervisor SAO Implementer
Operator	California	Human/entity	The person seated in the driver's seat of an autonomous vehicle or, if no person is seated there, the person who causes the autonomous technology to engage. This statutory attribution is distinct from permit-holder, test-driver, remote-driver, and remote-assistant roles.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750(a)(4) (binding primary authority) — California Vehicle Code	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas] Operator [Nevada] Person Deemed the Driver [Sweden]	Deployment Permit Holder Driverless Testing Permit Holder Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present
Operator	Nevada	Human/entity	A person is deemed the operator of an autonomous vehicle in autonomous mode when the person causes it to engage, whether or not the person is physically present. The role is activation-based and should not be treated as equivalent to a remote driver or fleet operator.	Nev. Admin. Code § 482A.020 (binding primary authority) — Nevada autonomous-vehicle rules	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Operator [California] Person Deemed the Driver [Sweden]	—
Operator	Switzerland	Human (only remote)	A human who remotely supervises a driverless vehicle and may perform or approve the interventions allowed by Swiss law, including proposed manoeuvres. The role is distinct from remote driving, and the operator need not work from a facility formally designated as a control centre.	Ordinance on Automated Driving (OCAut/VAF), effective 1 Mar. 2025 (Switzerland) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force from 1 Mar. 2025) — Swiss automated-driving ordinance Federal Roads Office (ASTRA), official automated-driving guidance (official / technical material) — Swiss automated-driving ordinance	Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel [China (Beijing)] Remote Monitor [Generic] SAO Chief Supervisor [Japan] Technische Aufsicht [Germany]	—
Operator	UAOVA (US model state law)	Human/entity	The individual or legal entity that is the exclusive legal operator of an associated automated vehicle during automated operation. The adopting state's otherwise-applicable vehicle-code meaning of operator remains in place, but this role is assigned to the automated driving provider. The ADS, rather than that provider, performs the entire dynamic driving task; the legal designation does not mean that the provider directly performs lateral or longitudinal vehicle-motion control.	UAOVA § 2(12)–(13) and § 4 (Unif. Law Comm’n 2019) (model legislation; no legal effect in any state unless enacted)	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Driver [UAOVA (US model state law)]	—
Operator (ADS Attribution)	Florida	ADS	When the ADS is engaged, Florida deems the automated driving system to be the operator for purposes of assessing compliance with traffic and motor-vehicle laws, regardless of whether a person is physically present. This legal attribution is distinct from the natural-person Remote Human Operator.	Fla. Stat. § 316.85 (binding primary authority) — Florida ADS operation statute	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Driver [US (national); ADS] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas] Operator [California] Person Deemed the Driver [Sweden]	Remote Human Operator
Operator (ADS Attribution)	Texas	ADS	When engaged, the automated driving system is the operator of the automated motor vehicle, including for assessing compliance with traffic and motor-vehicle laws.	Tex. Transp. Code § 545.454(a)–(b) (binding primary authority) — Texas Transportation Code	Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Driver [US (national); ADS] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida] Operator [California] Person Deemed the Driver [Sweden]	Commercial Authorization Holder Human Driver Owner
Opérateur d'intervention à distance	France	Human (only remote)	A person who performs authorized remote-intervention functions within the safety framework of an automated road transport system. The person may issue defined instructions or assistance but does not continuously perform the dynamic driving task and therefore is not a remote driver.	Code des transports arts. R. 3151-1 ff.; Arrêté du 2 août 2022 (France) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) — French remote-intervention order STRMTG, Référentiels techniques STRA (official / technical material) French STRA decree	ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Assistant [Canada] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Encadrant d'intervention à distance STRA Operator
Organisateur du service	France	Human/entity	The person or public/private body responsible for organizing the automated road transport service under the French STRA framework. The organizer is legally distinct from the system designer and the exploitant, although one entity may hold more than one role.	Code des transports arts. L. 3151-1 ff. and R. 3151-1 ff.; Décret n° 2021-873; Décret n° 2024-1063 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted STRA service role) — French STRA decree; French 2024 STRA decree	Fleet Operator [Generic] Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom] Road-Transport Operator [Slovakia] Transport Service Operator [European Union]	STRA Operator System Designer
Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA)	France	Entity	An organisme qualifié agréé is an independent accredited body that assesses the operator’s safety-demonstration file under STRMTG oversight. The authorization authority relies on that assessment in authorizing a service.	Décret n° 2021-873 du 29 juin 2021; Code des transports arts. R. 3151-1 ff. (France) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted French role; guidance describes methodology) DGITM/STRMTG, current GAME safety-demonstration guidance; STRMTG, automated road transport systems materials (official / technical material) — French OQA guidance Comparative analogy to the UN safety-case reviewer (secondary / analytical source)	Assessor / Competent Personnel [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Safety Management System Auditor [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Safety-Case Reviewer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Technical Service [UNECE 1958 Agreement]	STRA Operator System Designer
Other Road User	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human	A human outside the ADS vehicle whose presence or behaviour is relevant to the driving task and safety response. In the broader usage of the term, it can also refer to animals, vehicles, and other nearby actors and objects; a traffic controller, first responder, driver, cyclist, or pedestrian may simultaneously be an other road user.	UN ADS GTR, including paras. 2.14, 2.21, 3.1 and 4.1.2.6-4.1.2.7 (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139), with the parallel UN ADS Regulation (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137)	Cyclist [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Pedestrian [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Road User [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Vulnerable Road User [Generic]	—
Owner	Texas	Human/entity	The owner of an automated motor vehicle generally receives citations for traffic or motor-vehicle-law violations that occur while the ADS is engaged.	Tex. Transp. Code § 545.454(b) (binding primary authority; as amended by S.B. 2807, 2025) — Texas Transportation Code	Halter [Germany] Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle [Croatia] Person in Whose Name a Vehicle Is Registered [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Registered Operator [Australia]	Commercial Authorization Holder Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas]
Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle Croatian: vlasnik potpuno automatiziranog vozila	Croatia	Entity	The legal person that owns a fully automated vehicle used for public transport outside an approved area in Croatia. The owner is responsible for registration, safety settings, markings, qualified personnel, data preservation, video monitoring, access controls, and, subject to exceptions, traffic offences committed by the vehicle.	Croatian Road Safety Act arts. 281.a–281.f, as inserted by NN 145/2024 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force from Dec. 2024)	Halter [Germany] Owner [Texas] Registered Operator [Australia]	On-Board Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity
Passenger Chinese: 乘客	China (national)	Human (only in-vehicle)	An in-vehicle user who is not performing the dynamic driving task and is not assigned the applicable fallback role. GB/T 40429-2021 describes the role as bearing no dynamic-driving-task or takeover responsibility; GB 44721-2026 defines it as an occupant who is neither the driver nor the fallback user.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.2 (current recommended national standard) GB 44721-2026, § 3.17 (published mandatory national standard; effective 1 July 2027) MIIT consultation text for GB 44721-2026, § 3.17 (official pre-publication primary text) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Occupant [China (national)] Passenger [SAE J3016] Passenger [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	—
Passenger	SAE J3016	Human (only in-vehicle)	A user inside a vehicle who has no role in performing the dynamic driving task. A passenger may be capable of becoming a driver, but remains a passenger while the ADS drives unless the person takes over the dynamic driving task.	SAE J3016	Occupant [China (national)] Passenger [China (national)] Passenger [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	—
Passenger	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human (only in-vehicle)	A passenger is an ADS user who is neither a driver nor a fallback user.	ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139, ¶ 2.14.4 (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition) Parallel UN ADS Regulation (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137) (1958 Agreement instrument)	Occupant [China (national)] Passenger [China (national)] Passenger [SAE J3016]	Driver [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]
Pedestrian	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human	A person using the road on foot or treated as a pedestrian for purposes of the traffic rules. The conventions do not separately define pedestrian; the 1968 Convention also applies pedestrian rules to people pushing a cycle, moped, motorcycle, or handcart.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 7 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 20–21 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Other Road User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Vulnerable Road User [Generic]	Authorized Official Directing Traffic
Person Deemed the Driver	Sweden	Human	The person who activates automated driving and is legally treated as the vehicle's driver until automated driving is deactivated. The person may be inside or outside the vehicle and is distinct from the trial permit holder.	Förordning (2017:309) om försöksverksamhet med automatiserade fordon, § 7 (binding primary authority; status: Temporary trial attribution rule) — Swedish automated-vehicle trial regulation	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida] Operator (ADS Attribution) [Texas] Operator [California] Operator [Nevada]	Responsible Person for Permit Compliance Trial Permit Holder
Person in Whose Name a Vehicle Is Registered	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human/entity	The person identified in a jurisdiction's records as the person in whose name a vehicle is registered. The status supports cross-border identification after a serious crash and need not identify the vehicle's driver or, under the 1949 Convention's wording, its owner.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 25 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, art. 3(6) (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Halter [Germany] Owner [Texas] Registered Operator [Australia]	Competent Authority
Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle Slovak: osoba, ktorá vykonáva dohľad nad vozidlom, ktoré na jazdu využíva automatizovaný systém riadenia	Slovakia	Human	A person whom Slovak law treats as the driver while supervising a vehicle that uses an automated driving system. The person must monitor traffic and take over the actual driving in a timely and safe manner when the system requests or circumstances require, possibly from a remote location.	Slovak Act No. 429/2022, amending Road Traffic Act No. 8/2009, §§ 2(2)(v), 5(6) (binding primary authority; in force 2 Jan. 2023)	Driver of an Automated Delivery Vehicle [Slovakia] Driver-in-Readiness [Finland] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Supervision Operator [Slovakia]	Test-Operation Permit Holder
Pilot Proprietor	China (Hong Kong)	Human/entity	The pilot proprietor is the person or organization issued a pilot licence by the Commissioner for Transport. The licence authorizes a pilot scheme that may cover multiple vehicles; each pilot vehicle also requires an AV certificate.	Road Traffic (Autonomous Vehicles) Regulation (Cap. 374AA) (Hong Kong) (binding primary authority; status: Temporary pilot regime) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle legislation Road Traffic Ordinance (Cap. 374) §§ 134–138, as amended by the Road Traffic (Amendment) (Autonomous Vehicles) Ordinance 2023 (binding primary authority) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle legislation Transport Department, Code of Practice for Trial and Pilot Use of Autonomous Vehicles (1 Mar. 2024) (official technical guidance) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle trial framework Legislative Council Brief, TLB CR 15/62/82019 (Dec. 2023) (official / technical material) — Hong Kong autonomous-vehicle legislation Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Automated Delivery-Vehicle Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Commercial Authorization Holder [Texas] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Road-Application Pilot Entity [China (Beijing)] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Organization [Canada] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Backup Operator
Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel Chinese: 平台安全监控人员	China (Beijing)	Human (only remote)	A person who monitors vehicle operations through the safety-monitoring platform used in Beijing road-application pilots. The person issues warnings, responds to hazards and emergencies, and can take over the dynamic driving task when prompted by platform monitoring, the system, or traffic conditions.	《北京市自动驾驶汽车条例》 (Beijing Autonomous Vehicles Regulation), adopted 31 Dec. 2024, eff. 1 Apr. 2025, arts. 27 (pilot qualification; personnel conditions at 27(3)), 37 (staffing and duties), 31 (crash measures and reporting), 26 (safety assessment), 44 (penalty); cf. art. 33 (manual takeover on breakdown — driver or safety officer only) and art. 32 (enterprises and individuals generally). Official texts: Beijing Municipal People’s Congress Standing Committee and Beijing Municipal Government gazette (binding primary authority; status: Enacted municipal role, effective 1 Apr. 2025) 《北京市自动驾驶汽车道路应用试点办法》 (Beijing Measures for Road Application Pilots of Autonomous Vehicles), arts. 13–15 (Oct. 2025) (official / technical material) — Beijing automated-vehicle regulation Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Operator [Switzerland] Remote Monitor [Generic] SAO Chief Supervisor [Japan] Technische Aufsicht [Germany]	Road-Application Pilot Entity Safety Operator [China (Beijing)]
Registered Operator	Australia	Human/entity	The person in whose name a vehicle is registered under Australian state or territory law. This keeper-style role is distinct from the proposed ADSE.	Applicable state and territory vehicle-registration laws (binding primary authority; status: Existing registration concept; proposed duty reassignment) NTC, Changing Driving Laws to Support Automated Vehicles (2017–18) and later AV reform materials (official / technical material) — Australian automated-vehicle policy	Halter [Germany] Owner [Texas] Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle [Croatia] Person in Whose Name a Vehicle Is Registered [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)]	Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE)
Relevant Authority	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Entity	The public authority or body that receives specified manufacturer notifications and in-service safety reports. The UN text does not identify the institution; national implementation determines which authority performs the role.	ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139, ¶¶ 5.4.3, 5.4.7.1 (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Used but not defined in adopted UN GTR text) UN Regulation on ADS	Competent Authority [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] In-Use Regulator [Generic]	Manufacturer
Remote ADS Assistant	SAE J3016	Human (only remote)	A user outside the vehicle who provides event-driven information or advice to an ADS while the ADS continues to perform the dynamic driving task and fallback. The same person may also perform separate fleet-operation functions, but ADS assistance excludes dispatch decisions about destination or trip initiation.	SAE J3016	Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [SAE J3016]
Remote Assistant	California	Human (only remote)	A person outside the vehicle who provides guidance or other remote support while the ADS continues to perform the dynamic driving task. The final 2026 rules distinguish this role from a Remote Driver and removed the proposed individual-permit requirement for assistants, while retaining manufacturer qualification, training, recordkeeping, and operational duties.	13 CCR arts. 3.7-3.8 and Final Statement of Reasons (effective 28 Apr. 2026) (binding regulatory text plus official rulemaking explanation) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations; California rulemaking statement	Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote Assistant [Canada] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union] Remote Operator [California]	Deployment Permit Holder Driverless Testing Permit Holder Remote Driver [California]
Remote Assistant	Canada	Human	The human who oversees an ACMV in the driverless stream from inside the vehicle or from another location in Ontario and is ready to provide the required oversight. First-responder contact information for the remote assistant must be displayed on driverless-stream vehicles, and the approved testing approach specifies the detailed arrangement.	O. Reg. 161/25 and Ontario ACMV Pilot Program Conditions (binding regulation plus official program conditions)	Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant Trial Organization
Remote Assistant	SAE J3016	Human (only remote)	A human outside the vehicle who provides event-driven information or advice to a vehicle with an engaged ADS, but does not perform any part of the dynamic driving task or DDT fallback.	SAE J3016	ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Assistant [Canada] Remote Controller [Finland] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [SAE J3016]
Remote Controller	Finland	Human (only remote)	A proposed remote human participant who would communicate with passengers and support the required remote-management functions. The official 2025 presentation uses the phrase "remote controllers" but does not separately define the role or say that it necessarily performs the dynamic driving task.	Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications, Regulating the Deployment of Automated Vehicles in Finland, UNECE document ADS-12-51, slide 6 (official 2025 policy presentation; proposed functional label) Finnish Government, road-traffic automation regulation project LVM032:00/2021 (official legislative-project status; proposal still in preparation as of 27 Aug. 2026)	Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Monitor [Generic] Supervision Operator [Slovakia]	Remote Management Provider
Remote Driver	California	Human (only remote)	A person outside the vehicle who is authorized and trained to perform the dynamic driving task or DDT fallback remotely for an AV operating under the applicable testing or deployment permit. Current regulations require identification, qualifications, training, records, and availability to law enforcement; the role is distinct from a Remote Assistant, who does not perform the DDT or fallback.	13 CCR arts. 3.7-3.8, as revised effective 28 Apr. 2026 (binding primary authority) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations California rulemaking statement	Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [China (national)] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [Utah] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Operator [California]	Deployment Permit Holder Driverless Testing Permit Holder Remote Assistant [California]
Remote Driver Chinese: 远程驾驶员	China (national)	Human	A driver who is not seated where the vehicle's braking, acceleration, steering, and gear-selection inputs can be operated manually and directly, but who can still operate the vehicle in real time. The person may be elsewhere inside the vehicle, outside within sight of it, or outside its sight.	GB/T 40429-2021, § 2.17.1.2 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Driver [China (national)] Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [Utah]	—
Remote Driver	Netherlands	Human (only remote)	A remote human driver or supervisor authorized under a Dutch automated-vehicle experiment and its permit conditions. Despite the statute’s popular name, the scheme is not about vehicles operating without human supervision: it is built for a person outside the vehicle who can still be classified as the bestuurder, and every duty and responsibility that existing law places on a driver applies equally to a driver who is not in the vehicle.	Experimenteerwet zelfrijdende auto’s, amending Wegenverkeerswet 1994 arts. 149aa–149ab; cf. art. 149a and the Besluit ontheffingverlening exceptioneel vervoer (Netherlands) (binding primary authority; status: Permit-based experimental role) — Netherlands road-traffic experiments law Official experiment authorization materials (official / technical material) — Netherlands road-traffic experiments law	Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [China (national)] Remote Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Driver [Utah] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Human Operator [Florida]	—
Remote Driver	SAE J3016	Human (only remote)	A driver who performs part or all of the DDT from outside the vehicle through remote means. The role differs from a Remote Assistant, Driverless Operation Dispatcher, and Remote Fallback-Ready User because it entails actual DDT performance.	SAE J3016	Driver of an Automated Delivery Vehicle [Slovakia] Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [China (national)] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [Utah]	Remote ADS Assistant Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Fallback-Ready User
Remote Driver	Utah	Human (only remote)	A human driver who operates an automated vehicle remotely under Utah’s Automated Vehicle Act. The role is distinct from a remote assistant who does not perform the dynamic driving task.	Utah Code tit. 41, ch. 26 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted state role) — Utah automated-vehicle law	Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [China (national)] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [SAE J3016] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Human Operator [Florida]	Driverless Operation Dispatcher [Utah]
Remote Fallback-Ready User	SAE J3016	Human (only remote)	A fallback-ready user of a Level 3 ADS-equipped vehicle in driverless operation who is not seated in the driver’s seat. After an alert to perform the dynamic driving task, the user can become a remote driver and perform fallback by remotely operating the vehicle.	SAE J3016	DDT Fallback-Ready User [China (national)] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [California] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [Utah] User-in-Charge (UiC) [United Kingdom]	Remote Driver [SAE J3016]
Remote Human Operator	Florida	Human (only remote)	A natural person outside an ADS-equipped vehicle who remotely engages or monitors it. The person may perform part or all of the dynamic driving task or cause a minimal-risk condition; applicable law also imposes location and driver-licensing requirements.	Fla. Stat. §§ 316.003 and 316.85 (binding primary authority; current remote-human-operator and ADS-operation provisions) — Florida statutory definitions; Florida ADS operation statute	Driver [SAE J3016] Fernlenkende Person [Germany] Remote Driver [Netherlands] Remote Driver [Utah] Remote Operator [California]	Operator (ADS Attribution) [Florida]
Remote Intervention Operator Croatian: operator intervencije na daljinu	Croatia	Human (only remote)	A person outside the fully automated vehicle who may remotely perform the functions of the Croatian on-board operator when safe. The person does not drive the vehicle, and the ADS continues the dynamic driving task.	Croatian Road Safety Act definition 113 and art. 281.c, as amended by NN 145/2024 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force from Dec. 2024)	Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Assistant [Canada] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]	Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle
Remote Intervention Operator	European Union	Human (only remote)	A person outside a fully automated vehicle who may remotely perform the limited tasks assigned to an on-board operator when it is safe to do so. The person can request or confirm specified actions but does not drive the vehicle; the ADS continues to perform the dynamic driving task.	Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1426, consolidated 24 Mar. 2026 (binding primary authority; status: EU type-approval role; consolidated 24 Mar. 2026) Croatian Road Safety Act, definition 113 and art. 281.c, as amended by NN 145/2024 (binding primary authority)	ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Opérateur d'intervention à distance [France] Remote ADS Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Assistant [California] Remote Assistant [Canada] Remote Assistant [SAE J3016] Remote Intervention Operator [Croatia]	Transport Service Operator
Remote Management Provider	Finland	Entity	A proposed legal entity that would be licensed to organize remote-management operations for automated vehicles without an in-vehicle driver. The proposed minimum functions include oversight of the vehicle, its location, and its interior; requesting assistance for faults or emergencies; and enabling two-way communication between passengers and remote controllers.	Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications, Regulating the Deployment of Automated Vehicles in Finland, UNECE document ADS-12-51, slides 6-7 (official 2025 policy presentation; proposed role) Finnish Government, road-traffic automation regulation project LVM032:00/2021 (official legislative-project status; proposal still in preparation as of 27 Aug. 2026)	Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator [Slovakia] Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom]	Automated Driving Provider Remote Controller
Remote Monitor	Generic	Human (only remote)	A human who observes automated-vehicle operations from a distance, often across multiple vehicles, and escalates or alerts without commanding manoeuvres or performing the dynamic driving task. The role is more passive than remote assistance and is distinct from remote driving.	Generic comparative role used to distinguish observation from remote assistance, intervention, and driving. — On Remote Driving	Operator [Switzerland] Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel [China (Beijing)] Remote Controller [Finland] SAO Chief Supervisor [Japan] Technische Aufsicht [Germany]	Fleet Operator
Remote Operator	California	Human (only remote)	A human outside the vehicle used in CPUC-authorized driverless AV passenger service. The CPUC uses remote operator as a broad operational label rather than supplying one uniform definition: some remote operators maintain passenger communication or provide remote support, while those capable of performing the dynamic driving task are subject to additional driver-related requirements.	CPUC Decision 18-05-043, ordering paras. 8-17 (binding CPUC decision; driverless pilot program) CPUC Decision 20-11-046, as modified by Decision 21-05-017, ordering para. 7 (binding CPUC decision; driverless Phase I deployment program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information; uses but does not separately define ‘remote operator’)	Remote Assistant [California] Remote Driver [California] Remote Human Operator [Florida]	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) Driverless AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant Driverless AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant
Responsible Person for Permit Compliance	Sweden	Human	A natural person approved by the Swedish Transport Agency within a legal-person trial operator and responsible for ensuring that the activity is conducted in accordance with the permit.	Förordning (2017:309) om försöksverksamhet med automatiserade fordon, § 6 (binding primary authority) — Swedish automated-vehicle trial regulation	Executive Officer [Australia] Nominated Individual [United Kingdom] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity [Croatia]	Person Deemed the Driver Trial Permit Holder
Responsible Person in the Owner Entity	Croatia	Human	A responsible natural person within the legal-person owner of a fully automated vehicle. The 2024 amendments give the responsible person, or a person authorized by that person, access to specified stored vehicle data and video; they also impose personal administrative penalties for violations of the data and video duties.	Croatian Road Safety Act arts. 281.e–281.f, as amended by NN 145/2024 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted corporate-accountability role)	Executive Officer [Australia] Nominated Individual [United Kingdom] Responsible Person for Permit Compliance [Sweden] Senior Manager [United Kingdom] Specified Person [Singapore]	Owner of a Fully Automated Vehicle
Road User	UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)	Human	A person participating in road traffic and subject to the conventions' general conduct rules. Neither convention separately defines road user; the operative provisions use it as an umbrella that includes drivers and pedestrians.	1949 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 7–8 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties) 1968 Convention on Road Traffic, arts. 5–7 (binding treaty law for Contracting Parties)	Other Road User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Vulnerable Road User [Generic]	Authorized Official Directing Traffic
Road-Application Pilot Entity Chinese: 道路应用试点主体	China (Beijing)	Entity	The entity approved to conduct a Beijing autonomous-vehicle road-application pilot. It must demonstrate operating and liability-bearing capability, cybersecurity and data-security safeguards, a compliant vehicle safety assessment, qualified personnel, and complete operating, safety-assurance, and emergency-handling plans.	Beijing Autonomous Vehicles Regulation arts. 27-29, 36-37 and 44-46; Beijing Road-Application Pilot Measures (binding municipal legislation and official implementing measures) — Beijing automated-vehicle regulation Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Test Subject [China (national)] Use Subject [China (national)]	Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel Safety Operator [China (Beijing)]
Road-Safety Agent	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human	An undefined UN term for a human road-safety actor whose presence or instructions may require an ADS response. The UN ADS GTR and parallel UN Regulation use ‘road-safety agent’ but do not define it. Context suggests officials or responders who direct traffic, enforce traffic laws, or manage traffic incidents.	UN GTR on ADS paras. 4.1.2.11 and 4.1.3.3.2; Annex 4 para. 3.5.2(f) (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) (uses but does not define ‘road-safety agent’; UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition) Parallel UN ADS Regulation (adopted June 2026; ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137; final number pending official publication) (uses but does not define ‘road-safety agent’; UN Regulation under the 1958 Agreement; binding on Contracting Parties applying it)	Authorized Official Directing Traffic [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] First Responder [Generic] Traffic Controller [Generic]	—
Road-Transport Operator Slovak: prevádzkovateľ cestnej dopravy	Slovakia	Human/entity	A proposed passenger- or goods-transport business role that would apply to the transport authority for permission to use a fully automated vehicle and identify the required supervision arrangements. It would remain distinct from the licensed fully automated vehicle operator that provides the technical supervision.	Slovak Parliament, Government Bill 1329, proposed Road Transport Act § 32a and related provisions (official proposed text; not enacted as of 27 Aug. 2026) Slovak Parliament, bill 1329 legislative-status page (official status: introduced 7 May 2026 and passed first reading 3 June 2026)	Organisateur du service [France] Transport Service Operator [European Union]	Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator Supervision Operator
Safety Driver	California	Human (only in-vehicle)	The in-vehicle human driver used in the CPUC's drivered AV passenger-service programs and available to assist with vehicle operation when needed. The CPUC uses but does not separately define safety driver; the person must satisfy the applicable CPUC carrier requirements and California DMV driver, training, and testing or deployment requirements.	CPUC Decision 18-05-043, ordering paras. 1-7 (binding CPUC decision; drivered pilot program) CPUC Decision 20-11-046, as modified by Decision 21-05-017, ordering paras. 1 and 5-6 (binding CPUC decision; drivered Phase I deployment program) CPUC Autonomous Vehicle Passenger Service Programs (official current program information; uses but does not separately define ‘safety driver’)	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Safety Driver [Singapore] Test Driver [China (national)]	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) Drivered AV Passenger Service Deployment Participant Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant
Safety Driver	Singapore	Human (only in-vehicle)	A human required by a Singapore autonomous-motor-vehicle trial or special-use authorization to monitor the vehicle from inside it and take over operation if necessary. The framework authorizes the Land Transport Authority to impose the role as a condition rather than defining one universal set of duties.	Road Traffic (Autonomous Motor Vehicles) Rules 2017 (Singapore), rr. 7-10 (binding primary authority; authorization-condition role) — Singapore autonomous-motor-vehicle rules	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Safety Driver [California] Safety Operator [China (Beijing)] Safety Operator [China (national)] Safety Operator [China (Shenzhen)] Safety Supervisor [China (national)] Test Driver [China (national)]	Specified Person
Safety Management System Auditor	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human/entity	The auditor or audit team that examines the manufacturer’s Safety Management System. The UN text requires auditors to have the technical and administrative knowledge necessary for the audit, demonstrated through appropriate qualifications or equivalent training records.	ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139, ¶ 6.1.4 (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Adopted UN assurance function) UN Regulation on ADS	Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) [France]	Manufacturer Safety-Case Reviewer
Safety Operator Chinese: 安全员	China (Beijing)	Human	A human assigned by a Beijing road-application pilot entity to monitor an automated vehicle, address operational hazards and incidents, and perform any required takeover or intervention under the pilot plan and municipal rules.	Beijing Autonomous Vehicles Regulation, including arts. 31, 33 and 37 (binding municipal legislation) — Beijing automated-vehicle regulation Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [Singapore] Safety Supervisor [China (national)]	Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel Road-Application Pilot Entity
Safety Operator Chinese: 安全员	China (national)	Human	A human assigned under the national ICV access and on-road pilot to monitor vehicle operation, respond to unsafe conditions or incidents, and take over or otherwise intervene as required by the approved pilot arrangement.	Four-ministry Notice on ICV Access and On-Road Pilot Work and Implementation Guide (Trial), 17 Nov. 2023 (official national pilot instrument) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [Singapore]	Use Subject
Safety Operator Chinese: 安全员	China (Shenzhen)	Human	A human assigned under Shenzhen's local intelligent-and-connected-vehicle regime to monitor testing or demonstration operation and take the safety actions required by the approved local plan and operating conditions.	Shenzhen Special Economic Zone Regulation on the Administration of Intelligent and Connected Vehicles (2026 consolidated text) (binding municipal legislation) — Shenzhen ICV regulation Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [Singapore] Safety Supervisor [China (national)]	—
Safety Operator	Singapore	Human	A qualified person who may be required by an authorization to monitor an autonomous motor vehicle and take over its operation if necessary. Unlike the Safety Driver condition, the Rules do not require this role to be seated in the vehicle; the authorization supplies the operational detail.	Road Traffic (Autonomous Motor Vehicles) Rules 2017, r. 9(2)(c) (binding primary authority; authorization-condition role) — Singapore autonomous-motor-vehicle rules	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Backup Operator [China (Hong Kong)] Safety Operator [China (Beijing)] Safety Operator [China (national)] Safety Operator [China (Shenzhen)] Safety Supervisor [China (national)]	Specified Person
Safety Supervisor Chinese: 安全员	China (national)	Human	A person authorized by the Test Subject to safeguard testing and handle ADS failures and other abnormal conditions. The person must monitor the test vehicle and surrounding environment, take over when necessary, report specified events, and keep test logs.	GB/T 43766-2024, §§ 3.13 and 6 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [China (Beijing)] Safety Operator [China (Shenzhen)] Safety Operator [Singapore] Test Driver [China (national)]	Test Management Organization Test Subject
Safety-Case Reviewer	UN Regulation / GTR on ADS	Human/entity	The person or team that reviews the manufacturer’s safety case before certification or approval. As part of demonstrating compliance with the safety-assurance requirements, the manufacturer shall review its safety case prior to certification or approval, and is encouraged to do so during development.	UN GTR on ADS ¶¶ 5.3.4.1–5.3.4.5, 6.3.1.4(h) (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139) (UN GTR under the 1998 Agreement; no direct legal effect pending national transposition; status: Adopted UN text; final editorial numbering check) Parallel UN ADS Regulation (adopted June 2026; ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/137; final number pending official publication) (UN Regulation under the 1958 Agreement; binding on Contracting Parties applying it)	Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) [France]	Manufacturer Safety Management System Auditor
SAO Chief Supervisor Japanese: 特定自動運行主任者	Japan	Human	A person who supervises specified automated operation remotely or from aboard the vehicle and assumes driver-related safety duties when no driver is present. The supervisor directs incident handling and coordinates the on-site response operator.	道路交通法 (Road Traffic Act, Japan) arts. 75-19, 75-21, as amended by Act No. 32 of 2022 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) — Japanese Road Traffic Act National Police Agency, Summary of the Level 4 (SAO) Permit System (2022) (official / technical material) — Japanese Level 4 automated-operation guidance	Operator [Switzerland] Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel [China (Beijing)] Remote Monitor [Generic] Technische Aufsicht [Germany]	On-Site Response Operator SAO Implementer
SAO Implementer Japanese: 特定自動運行実施者	Japan	Human/entity	The specified automated operation implementer (特定自動運行実施者) is the person that obtains a permit from the Prefectural Public Safety Commission to conduct specified automated operation. The implementer submits and follows the operation plan; designates a chief supervisor and, when required, an on-site response operator; educates designated personnel; keeps records; implements crash measures; and maintains required insurance.	道路交通法 (Road Traffic Act, Japan) arts. 75-12 to 75-26, as amended by Act No. 32 of 2022 (in force 1 Apr. 2023) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) — Japanese Road Traffic Act National Police Agency, 特定自動運行に係る許可制度の創設について (June 2022) (official / technical material) — Japanese Level 4 automated-operation guidance Commentary concerning whether the implementer is functionally analogous to a driver (secondary / analytical source)	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia] STRA Operator [France] Use Subject [China (national)]	On-Site Response Operator SAO Chief Supervisor
Second Responder	Generic	Human	Tow and recovery operators, roadside-assistance personnel, hazmat cleanup crews, and others who arrive after the immediate emergency phase to clear, recover, or repair vehicles and restore the roadway. No examined framework defines their authority over an automated vehicle: who may lawfully direct, move, disable, or tow an ADS-equipped vehicle — and how the vehicle or its remote supervision must respond — is governed today by operator protocols rather than statute.	Generic incident-recovery role; German road-traffic law provides an illustrative framework for post-incident operational duties. — German Road Traffic Act	On-Site Response Operator [Japan]	First Responder Fleet Operator
Senior Manager	United Kingdom	Human	A senior manager of a regulated body who may be personally liable for an offence committed with the manager's consent or connivance. This is an offence-attribution role, not a general operational office or a nominated individual.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, § 27 (binding primary authority; status: Enacted offense-liability rule)	Executive Officer [Australia] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity [Croatia]	Licensed NUiC Operator Nominated Individual
Specified Person	Singapore	Human/entity	The natural person or body corporate nominated in an application as the point of contact for an approved trial or special use. The Specified Person handles prescribed applications, documents, liaison, records, maintenance, incident notification, and other duties under Part 3 of the Rules.	Road Traffic (Autonomous Motor Vehicles) Rules 2017, rr. 2, 5-6 and 16-20 (binding primary authority) — Singapore autonomous-motor-vehicle rules	Nominated Individual [United Kingdom] Responsible Person in the Owner Entity [Croatia]	Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Operator [Singapore]
STRA Operator French: Exploitant	France	Human/entity	A natural or legal person that operates an automated road transport system, either directly or at the service organizer's request, and manages and maintains it. The same entity may also be the service organizer or system designer; when there are multiple operators, Exploitant denotes the lead operator. French freight rules use the same role for automated freight systems.	Code des transports art. R. 3151-1(13) (passenger STRA definition) Code des transports art. R. 3251-2(5) (freight STRA definition)	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia] Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator [Slovakia] SAO Implementer [Japan] Use Subject [China (national)]	Encadrant d'intervention à distance Opérateur d'intervention à distance Organisateur du service Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) System Designer
Supervision Operator Slovak: operátor dohľadu	Slovakia	Human (only remote)	A proposed remote human role that would supervise fully automated vehicles from a control center in Slovakia without continuously performing the dynamic driving task. The operator would have to be at least 18, hold the relevant driving licence for at least three years, complete vehicle-specific training, and intervene in the actual driving when necessary for safety or operational-domain compliance.	Slovak Parliament, Government Bill 1329, proposed Act No. 106/2018 §§ 2(2)(ak), 49a(7)-(8), and proposed Road Traffic Act § 5(6) (official proposed text; not enacted as of 27 Aug. 2026) Slovak Parliament, bill 1329 legislative-status page (official status: introduced 7 May 2026 and passed first reading 3 June 2026)	Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle [Slovakia] Remote Controller [Finland] Technische Aufsicht [Germany]	Licensed Fully Automated Vehicle Operator Road-Transport Operator
System Designer French: concepteur du système technique	France	Human/entity	The natural or legal person responsible for the design of the technical system used in a STRA. The designer prepares and maintains technical and safety documentation and interfaces with the service organizer, STRA operator, manufacturer, and OQA; one organization may occupy more than one role if the legal responsibilities remain clear.	Code des transports arts. R. 3151-1 ff.; Décrets nos. 2021-873 and 2024-1063 (binding primary authority) French STRA decree French 2024 STRA decree	Hersteller [Germany] Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California]	Organisateur du service Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) STRA Operator
Technical Service	UNECE 1958 Agreement	Entity	A body designated under the 1958 Agreement/type-approval system to carry out tests, inspections, or assessments on behalf of an approval authority. In the ADS materials, a residual GTR reference to ‘the approval authority or its designated technical service’ should be read against that type-approval background.	UNECE 1958 Agreement concerning the adoption of harmonized UN vehicle regulations and reciprocal recognition of approvals (binding treaty framework for Contracting Parties)	Assessor / Competent Personnel [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Organisme Qualifié Agréé (OQA) [France]	Approval Authority
Technische Aufsicht English: technical supervision	Germany	Human	A natural person who supervises an automated vehicle and can approve defined alternative manoeuvres or deactivate the automated function without continuously performing the driving task. German law defines the role by these functions, not by the person's location, so the approved arrangement may be remote or in-vehicle.	StVG §§ 1d(3), 1e(2) no. 4, 1e(3), 1f(1)–(3) (Germany) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted / in force) AFGBV § 14 (2022), as amended by Act of 12 May 2026 (BGBl. 2026 I Nr. 142) (binding primary authority)	Operator [Switzerland] Platform Safety Monitoring Personnel [China (Beijing)] Remote Monitor [Generic] SAO Chief Supervisor [Japan] Supervision Operator [Slovakia]	Fahrzeugführer Halter Hersteller
Test Driver Chinese: 测试驾驶人	China (national)	Human	A driver authorized by the Test Subject to conduct the test and take emergency measures involving the test vehicle. The person must understand the ADS and test procedure, monitor the vehicle and environment, take over when necessary, report specified events, and keep test logs.	GB/T 43766-2024, §§ 3.12 and 6 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver [California] Safety Driver [California] Safety Driver [Singapore] Safety Supervisor [China (national)]	Test Management Organization Test Subject
Test Management Organization Chinese: 测试运行管理主体	China (national)	Entity	A unit that monitors and manages road operational-safety testing and bears the corresponding responsibility. It operates the management platform, coordinates tests, conducts traffic-safety inspections, activates emergency measures, and receives test plans, event reports, and periodic summaries.	GB/T 43766-2024, §§ 3.14 and 7 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	—	Safety Supervisor Test Driver Test Subject
Test Subject Chinese: 测试主体	China (national)	Entity	A unit that organizes road operational-safety testing and bears the corresponding responsibility. It establishes the test platform, plans and evaluates testing, trains testing personnel, maintains vehicles, reports results, and responds to serious violations and crashes.	GB/T 43766-2024, §§ 3.11 and 5 (current recommended national standard) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Road-Application Pilot Entity [China (Beijing)] Trial Organization [Canada]	Safety Supervisor Test Driver Test Management Organization
Test-Operation Permit Holder Slovak: držiteľ povolenia skúšobnej prevádzky	Slovakia	Human/entity	The person that holds the type-approval authority's permit to conduct test operation of an automated or fully automated vehicle on public roads for development, manufacture, or approval. The permit holder must comply with the approved operating conditions and demonstrate that the trial does not endanger safety, health, or other protected public interests.	Slovak Act No. 106/2018 on Operation of Vehicles in Road Traffic, § 49, as amended by Act No. 429/2022 (binding primary authority)	Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Person Supervising an ADS-Operated Vehicle
Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present	California	Entity	A manufacturer or other eligible entity holding a California permit to test autonomous vehicles with a qualified test driver present as required by the applicable permit. The holder must satisfy permit-specific testing, driver, financial-responsibility, collision-reporting, and recordkeeping requirements.	Cal. Veh. Code § 38750; 13 CCR art. 3.7 (binding primary authority; status: Regulatory permit) — California Vehicle Code; California autonomous-vehicle regulations California DMV autonomous-vehicle permit materials (official / technical material) — California autonomous-vehicle regulations	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Test-Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Autonomous-Vehicle Test Driver Drivered AV Passenger Service Pilot Participant Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology Operator [California]
Traffic Controller	Generic	Human	Traffic controller is a generic label for a person who lawfully directs traffic or provides external instructions. Depending on the instrument, the person may be treated as a road-safety agent, law-enforcement officer, road worker, or other road user.	Generic road-safety actor; the UN ADS instruments provide an official framework-specific comparison. — UN GTR on ADS	Authorized Official Directing Traffic [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Road-Safety Agent [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS]	First Responder Vulnerable Road User
Transport Service Operator	European Union	Entity	The entity that provides a transport service using one or more fully automated vehicles. It carries the operational duties assigned to the service side of an EU type-approved system, including instructions, restrictions, incident response, and coordination with the manufacturer and on-board or remote personnel.	Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1426, consolidated 24 Mar. 2026, art. 2(35), Annex II §§ 11.1, 11.3–11.4, 11.7, Annex III Part 2 § 5.4.1 (binding primary authority; status: EU type-approval role; consolidated 24 Mar. 2026) Regulation (EU) 2019/2144, art. 11 (binding primary authority)	Charter-Party Carrier of Passengers (TCP) [California] Fleet Operator [Generic] Licensed NUiC Operator [United Kingdom] Organisateur du service [France] Road-Transport Operator [Slovakia]	On-Board Operator [European Union] Remote Intervention Operator [European Union]
Trial Organization	Canada	Human/entity	The organization conducting an ADS trial in Canada. Transport Canada's Version 2.0 testing guidelines recommend validation, safety assessment, route and weather restrictions, trained safety drivers or remote-operation personnel, passenger protections, first-responder engagement, incident practices, and coordination with provincial or territorial authorities.	Transport Canada, Guidelines for Testing Automated Driving Systems in Canada, Version 2.0 (official guidance; voluntary unless adopted as a condition) — Transport Canada ADS testing guidelines	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Test Subject [China (national)] Trial Permit Holder [Sweden]	Driver [Canada] Remote Assistant [Canada]
Trial Permit Holder Swedish: tillståndshavare	Sweden	Human/entity	The permit holder is the person authorized to conduct automated-vehicle trials. The permit holder is responsible for safe conduct, allocation of responsibilities, required reporting, and crash notification.	Förordning (2017:309) om försöksverksamhet med automatiserade fordon, §§ 6–7 (Sweden) (binding primary authority; status: Temporary trial regime) — Swedish automated-vehicle trial regulation Transportstyrelsens föreskrifter TSFS 2021:4, as amended (binding primary authority) SOU 2016:28 (preparatory history) (official / technical material)	Automated Commercial Motor Vehicle Pilot Participant [Canada] Automated Passenger Services (APS) Permit Holder [United Kingdom] Deployment Permit Holder [California] Driverless Testing Permit Holder [California] Pilot Proprietor [China (Hong Kong)] Test-Operation Permit Holder [Slovakia] Testing Permit Holder - Driver Present [California] Trial Organization [Canada]	Person Deemed the Driver Responsible Person for Permit Compliance
Use Subject Chinese: 使用主体	China (national)	Entity	The 使用主体 (use subject) is the operating-side member of the consortium used in China's national ICV access and on-road pilot. An automobile manufacturer and a use subject apply jointly with host-city and provincial support.	MIIT, MPS, MOHURD and MOT, Notice on ICV Access and On-Road Pilot Work, 17 Nov. 2023, with Implementation Guide (Trial) (official national pilot instrument) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE) [United Kingdom] Automated Driving Provider (ADP) [UAOVA (US model state law)] Automated Driving System Entity (ADSE) [Australia] Road-Application Pilot Entity [China (Beijing)] SAO Implementer [Japan] STRA Operator [France]	Automobile Manufacturer (Pilot Consortium) Safety Operator [China (national)]
User-in-Charge (UiC)	United Kingdom	Human (only in-vehicle)	The individual associated with an authorised user-in-charge feature. While that feature drives, the UiC is generally protected from offences arising from the manner of driving but retains other driver-related duties and must be qualified and ready to respond to a transition demand.	Automated Vehicles Act 2024, c. 10, §§ 7, 46–50, 53–54 (UK) (binding primary authority; status: Enacted; full authorised-vehicle regime not yet fully commenced) Law Comm'ns Joint Report, Law Com. No. 404, ch. 8 (Jan. 2022) (official / technical material)	Autonomous Vehicle Driver [South Korea] Driver [France] Driver [Switzerland] Driver [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Driver-in-Readiness [Finland] Fallback User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Fallback-Ready User (FRU) [SAE J3016] In-Vehicle Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016] Remote Fallback-Ready User [SAE J3016]	Authorised Self-Driving Entity (ASDE)
Vehicle Manufacturer Chinese: 车辆制造商	China (national)	Entity	A manufacturer responsible under GB 44721-2026 for lifecycle ADS safety assurance. Its duties cover safety policy, risk management, safety assurance and improvement, development verification and testing, safety-file support, and clear user information about automation level, capability, limitations, operating strategy, and user-role transitions.	MIIT, GB 44721-2026 publication announcement (official notice; issued 30 July 2026; effective 1 July 2027) Chinese automated-driving standards guide	Automobile Manufacturer (Pilot Consortium) [China (national)] Company [Canada] Hersteller [Germany] Manufacturer [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Manufacturer of Autonomous Technology [California]	—
Vulnerable Road User	Generic	Human	A human road user exposed to elevated injury risk because they lack a protective vehicle structure or use a powered two-wheeler. The category includes pedestrians and cyclists and can overlap with operational roles; for example, a human traffic controller working in the roadway can also be a vulnerable road user.	Regulation (EU) 2019/2144, art. 3; UN ADS GTR road-user requirements (ECE/TRANS/WP.29/2026/139)	Cyclist [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Other Road User [UN Regulation / GTR on ADS] Pedestrian [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)] Road User [UN Road Traffic Conventions (1949/1968)]	First Responder Traffic Controller